INTRODUCTION
The Wayuu ethnic group is the largest indigenous population in Colombia. They represent 30 percent of the indigenous group in Colombia. The term Wayuu means a person. Some of the members of the Wayuu community do not speak any Spanish as they continue to communicate in their ethnic language: Wayuunaiki. In 2010, UNESCO declared the Wayuu normative system applied by the Pütchipü’üi or palabrero as intangible heritage of humanity. Members of this ethnic group have both Colombian and Venezuelan citizenship as their territory falls in both countries. They inhabit La Guajira Peninsula located in the department by the same name and the north-western part of Venezuela along the border with Colombia. Colombia is divided into 32 departments, and one of them is La Guajira where the majority of the population belongs to the Wayuu community. This department is a semi-desert area where the temperatures vary between 35°C and 42°C along the year (see Figure 1). Many migrants from Europe and Arab countries came here for trade and commerce related to textile and coffee . The capital of the department is Riohacha and other important municipalities include Uribia, the indigenous capital of Colombia, Manaure, and Maicao. The location and extent of the case study area are depicted in Figure 2.
Figure 1. Semi-desert zone in La Guajira, Colombia. Photo: Maria Camila Hoyos.
Figure 2 .Location of the case study area in La Guajira – Colombia.
The Wayuu community lives in the rural area of the department in small settlements called: rancherías. Each settlement is made up of few houses built with mud and wood, as it is depicted in Figure 3. Each rancheria is a few minutes from the other one, showing the collaborative networks and the kinship between them. This area is rich in culture and tradition, an incredible landscape and a great touristic potential, as it can be appreciated in Figure 4.
Figure 3. Rancheria Wayuu near to Riohacha in La Guajira, Colombia. Photo: Diana Contreras.
Figure 4. El Cabo de la Vela in La Guajira, Colombia. Photo: Diana Contreras.
Equally stark images of the region include those showing the plight of the community facing severe drought conditions. Between the years 2008 and 2013, about 4,151 children have died in La Guajira. Among these, 278 deaths were due to undernourishment, 2,671 due to illness without treatment and 1,202 were foetal deaths. 48 children died in 2014, 38 in 2015, and 83 to the 16th December 2016. In terms of child mortality, 45 out of 1000 children in La Guajira die before the age of five.
The undernourishment and shortage in food is a result of a loss in crops from the drought and bad water management policies in the department. The problem of the drought and the food shortage was aggravated due to multiple reasons: El Niño Phenomenon (2012-2016), the high degree of corruption in the department and the political turmoil in Venezuela. Practitioners saw a major difference between the starvation in La Guajira and those in other regions of the world, like in Ethiopia. The situation in Ethiopia is well known due to the frequent famine problems but few recognize the famine in La Guajira.
In 2014, the government of Colombia declared a situation of public calamity in La Guajira. In December 2015, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (CIDH) ordered the Colombian Government to take precautionary measures to protect the children of the Wayuu community in the towns of Manaure, Uribia, Riohacha y Maicao in La Guajira.![endif]-- Only the Colombian media and politicians highlighted the famine in La Guajira. This multi-dimensional problem is aggravating the already fragile condition in this area. All these factors are leading to insufficient food supply causing undernourishment among the Wayuu community.
INFRASTRUCTURE, HEALTH AND CULTURE
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The presence of the State in La Guajira is limited. Politicians only visit the area during and before elections. This region is one of the poorest, desolated and isolated areas in Colombia where 80% of the population lives under the poverty line A walk to access drinking water takes hours . The water and sewage system only covers about 5.3% of this population and very few places have access to electricity. There are neither roads nor medical facilities or the medical facilities are in a state of bankruptcy.
The Wayuu community has to travel for hours by bicycle or on a donkey or car in rare instances to reach the nearest medical facility . In the absence of any conveyance mode, they need to walk for almost three hours to reach the nearest hospital . Once the members of the Wayuu ethnic group reach the hospital, they face communication problems because the medical practitioners do not speak their language. This makes it difficult to conduct a suitable diagnosis and the corresponding treatment. The children with symptoms of undernourishment receive the attention at the hospital, but the lack of drinking water and food at home regularly makes them ill.
The existing State healthcare system does not have a special focus on the Wayuu ethnic group and their region. When they arrive with children in an advance state of undernourishment to the hospital in Manaure, they often are sent to the capital of the department, Riohacha, for a complete treatment. Members of the Wayuu community prefer not to leave their children at the hospital because either they do not have a place to stay in the capital city or they do not like to stay away of their rancherias. The problem is when they return to the hospital in the town. There is no proper treatment available for the children and this, unfortunately results in their death. The Governor in 2015 considered that the health insurance companies are responsible for detecting the chronic cases of malnourishment and should not wait until the children arrive in bad conditions to the hospitals. Nevertheless, the health insurance companies consider that the health of the children depends on the availability of drinking water, food and land to cultivate which is responsibility of the government and not part of their services.
Apart from the multiple dimensions causing this severe condition of the region, some superstitions and strong belief systems of the community hinders the aid and development in the region. For example: following the mandate of the CIDH, the Colombian Institute of Family Welfare (ICBF) sent mobile teams to check the condition of the Wayuu children in each Rancheria. When the team recommends a child to be sent to the hospital due to a critical health condition, the parents do not permit the authorities to take the children to hospitals. The parents believe that the treatment in the hospital carried out by the alijunas (a white person, afro-colombian or a foreigner) and medical doctors will interfere with the work of their spirits. Their strong beliefs in supernatural interference is also a big challenge to address. When a child is sick, some members of the Wayuu community believe the sickness to be a result of an evil spirit entering the child’s body and they prefer to wait until it goes out or let the child die. Taking the child to a hospital is the last option considered by the parents. Another example of such beliefs in the community is that stopping to feed a child suffering from diarrhoea cures his/her condition.
In July 2016, 38 communities from the Wayuu ethnicity stated that they would not allow the entrance of the medical doctors and the member of the ICBF to check or treat the children until the problem with the water is resolved. A meeting was held with 300 people from the community, but it was not possible to negotiate with each person. As a consequence, it was suggested by the interim Governor in 2016 that they present a list with their requests to negotiate with the government .
A meeting was scheduled between traditional practitioners of medicine from the Wayuu community and modern medical doctors to work and reach an understanding between themselves . Now palabreros were hired by the Government to be close to the community, as the people who guarantee agreements among the Wayuu community.
The Interim Governor also announced a special effort to include the newborn children from the Wayuu community in the national census. They are counted before they leave the hospitals in the region. The effort will be extended to count the parents of the baby if they are not already registered, in the national census.
In 2016, the ICBF announced that the institution would take the custody of the kids from parents who do not allow that their children receive assistance in a health facility. The Nacional Prosecutor Office announced to prosecute parents for the same reason. In July 2016, the General Attorney ordered to exhume 15 corpses of children to determine if there was any negligence by the parents and if they died due to undernourishment. The ICBF made a call to the parents to take the children to the health facilities as soon as they detect the sign of undernourishment.
There is no public transport between the rancherías and municipalities (see Figure 5). The only transport mode available sometimes into the towns are the cyclotaxis similar to rickshaws, but they do not go to the rancherias. They cyclotaxis are cycles with two chairs, as it is portrayed in Figure 6.
Figure 5. Transport media in the high and medium Guajira due to lack of infrastructure (roads) in La Guajira, Colombia. Photo: Diana Contreras.
Figure 6. Ciclotaxis in Uribia, La Guajira, Colombia. Photo: Diana Contreras.
DROUGHT, UNDERNOURISHMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL MIGRATION
The child mortality rate in La Guajira is nearly 4.5%. The percentage of children suffering from chronic malnutrition is as high as 30%, and medical practitioners in the area ranked the rates of malnourishment among the Wayuu children near to 80% . 3 out of 10 children under the age of 5 year old in La Guajira suffers chronic malnutrition and illness related to this condition, such as gastroenteritis, anaemia, pneumonia, diarrhoea, etc..
The percentage of children suffering from malnutrition could be even higher if all of the Wayuu children were included in the national census . Most of the children are not registered when they born. When they die, they are buried near to the rancherias, where they belong to, and not all of the dead are reported. The children alive are smaller in body size in comparison to the standard size for their age. The height of the children also does not correspond to their age: three-year olds look like one year old, and 12-year olds looks like 8-year olds and so on. The food provided by the Government for the kids at the school is limited, only one egg and bienestarina (a powdered mix of milk, protein, Iron and flour made from soybeans, wheat, maize or rice). The effects of the undernourishment are also visible in pregnant and breastfeeding women, teenagers and older adults. The food shortage affects mainly the north and the centre of the department, known as Alta and media Guajira, respectively.
In the past, the members of the Wayuu community had another source of income in the legal or illegal trade with Venezuela and by working in dairy related activities. Nevertheless, the frequent closing of the border by the Venezuelan government (see Figure 7) and the humanitarian crisis in this country due to the food and medicines shortage eliminated this possibility.This situation has forced some teenagers from the Wayuu community to take up prostitution.![endif]--
Figure 7. Migration control point with Venezuela in Paraguachon, La Guajira, Colombia. Photo: Diana Contreras.
This long drought was the cause of the immigration of some of the Wayuu members to Venezuela or Riohacha. Farmers who used to cultivate the land migrated to the city to look for other sources of livelihood such as driving for ciclotaxi. Others who used to be tourist guides in activities such as bird watching, they worked as masons in other cities of the department. A Tourist guide for birdwatching doing his job is presented in Figure 8. and Video 1.
Figure 8. Tourist guide for birdwatching in Camarones, La Guajira, Colombia. Photo: Diana Contreras.
Video 1. Birdwatching at Camarones, La Guajira, Colombia.
Another problem caused by the prolonged drought is the death of domestic cattle, mainly goats. This is a problem for the social organization of the Wayuu community because these animals are used not only for meat and dairy supplements but also to repay their debts. They are also used to resolve problems with the indigenous justice and to pay a dowry of a bride in the case of her wedding .
After four years of drought, in March 2016, there was some light rain and drizzle in the municipalities of Hatonuevo, Maicao, Albania, the village of Bahía Hondita en Uribia, the Pájaro in Manaure and in Rioahacha. This raised the hope of the inhabitants that the rains will continue and will fill the dry jagüeyes (water reservoirs) and have some source of water. However, several climate scenarios in combination with El Niño only indicate higher frequency of such droughts like conditions and the need for better water management policies to safeguard the existence of such communities. ![endif]--
WATER MANAGEMENT
The lack of water, forces the people to drink water from salty wells. The course of the main river in the department: the rancheria river, which used to supply water for the communities changed when the El Cercado dam was built . The construction of the dam finished in 2010 in spite the Wayuu taking legal action against the construction of this dam because it was located in a sacred place according to its beliefs. The legal action was denied in May 2011.
The construction project of El Cercado dam did not meet the environmental requirements because a high percent of biomass was not removed before starting the initial filling. This action caused several illnesses among the population, such as leishmaniosis and haemorrhagic dengue. It was planned that the filling would be done in a period of three years. However, it was done in a period of three months and consequently affecting crops, animals and population in and around this area.
The river disappeared in its middle and lower course where the settlements of the Wayuu community are located. The dam is not complying with any of the objectives for which it was planned . The Government stated that the there is no budget for the construction of the irrigation districts. The dam already has the water outlets for aqueducts to be connected, but the necessary infrastructure is missing. Currently, el Cercado dam does not generate electricity and the water coming from the dam is used for rice, palm oil irrigation and the extraction industry in the coal mine.
The current activities and services at the Dam are not related to energy generation and drinking water supply as it was the originally intended . Only 8% of the budget of the department is invested in providing drinking water. ![endif]--
While the Wayuu community does not have water for cleaning or for preparing food (One person needs at least two litters per day), the coal mine is using 17 million of litters per day. The water is taken from the Rancheria river to reduce the dust from the roads at the mine.
The river flowing through the region of Wayuu community is dry after passing through the coal mine. The Wayuu community has denounced the complicity of the Government and the Independent Regional Corporations (CAR) working with the coal mine company . The Wayuu community was able to prove that since the river was affected and diverted, the fatalities due to malnourishment in the community and loss of crop have increased significantly. However, the Government attributes the entire problem to the drought and even to the Wayuu ethnic group . Now the coal mine diverted the Bruno stream to extract 35 millions Tons of coal, which are located under it. The Bruno’s stream project is opposed by the Wayuu community, who are afraid of its environmental impact mainly because the stream is one of last few water sources still available in the department . In November 2016, Samuel Arregoces, a Community Leader, launched an online- call through the platform Change.org to sign a request to stop the diversion of the Bruno stream. Nevertheless, in November of the same year, the first 3.6 km of the Bruno stream was diverted.
Jointly with the community, OXFAM installed some water supply systems. OXFAM has repaired damaged mills, habilitated wells at 11 points in the region and provided almost 1,800 families with water filters. However, it is necessary that the Government dig more wells to compensate for the water scarcity. In February 2016, the Colombian minister of Housing, city and Territory delivered additional wells, which will benefit 7,000 people and with them, they completed 98 wells delivered to face the crisis in Guajira. However, the national Government complains that there is no proactive attitude from the local Government in the department. The Government highlighted the case of the municipality of Maicao, which mainly depends on the wells drilled by the National Government. In 2014, the Governor of Guajira stated that they have some programs that involve some small aqueducts and health units to attend the needs of the most of the communities.
In August 2016, the Supreme Court of Justice and the High Court of Bogotá ordered the National Government to open the floodgates of the El Cercado dam in La Guajira so that the water arrives to the indigenous communities.
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POVERTY AND CORRUPTION
La Guajira could be one of the richest departments in Colombia because it has salt, gas and coalmines. The salt and Coal mines are shown in Figures 9 and 10, respectively. The cola mine is the tenth largest one in the world and the biggest open-pit mine. It is one of the departments in Colombia that most royalties are received: USD 1.500 million in past 25 years. However, the allocation of the financial resources coming from the royalties is unknown due to the high level of corruption . The Wayuu community should have the right to the 51% of the assets related to the exploitation of the salt mines in Manaure.
Figure 9. Salt mines in Manaure, La Guajira, Colombia. Photo: Diana Contreras.
Figure 10. Open-pit coal mine in, La Guajira, Colombia. Photo: Diana Contreras.
Since 2001 there is a system that allocates financial resources to the indigenous reservations to solve the problems related to health, basic sanitation and water. These resources arrive on time to the Municipalities, and they amount to USD 5 million to be invested in two years. The Municipalities are in charge of the management of these financial resources and they invest the money on the issues decided by the indigenous authorities. However, the authorities at the Municipalities never check if the public works or services are effectively delivered to the native and indigenous populations.
In 2014, the Counsellor for Women and Family from the National Organization of Indigenous Communities in Colombia (ONIC) denounced that any Institution from the Government had answered to their demands and that some of the indigenous leaders have been threatened due to their denounces against the ineffectiveness of the Government. Even some officials of the Colombian Government such as the director of the Planning Department at Guajira, Colombia and the General Attorney have denounced and accused the Government of the same reason.
This department has always been victim of corruption. The former Governor of the Department and the Mayors of Maicao and Manaure are sentenced to prison terms, while the Mayor of Uribia is fugitive of the justice. Ironically, the son of the former Mayor is the current Mayor of the same town. However, sometimes the same indigenous leaders collude with these corrupted politicians to obstruct the work of the State and steal money from it. They often create health-insurance companies that get contracts from the State while the public hospitals are running bankrupt. They also chose drivers by tacit agreements for vehicles that distribute water in the region. The election of the new Governor was invalidated in 2016, and an Interim Governor was assigned by the Government until November 2016. However, the previous Governor named by popular election in La Guajira was sent to the prison in February 2017, and the National Government designated a new Governor in late February. In February 2017, the Major of Riohacha was also accused of corruption and sent to the prison. Due to the vast amount of corruption cases, the National Government decided to take control of the Department. Currently, there is new Governor.
In August 2016, the director of the ICBF filed a criminal complaint against the providers of services for the program of the first childhood in La Guajira. They were four indigenous providers who have not been addressing the needs of 7,000 children, as it was defined in their contract. The ICBF found irregularities in the food delivery, pedagogical projects and in the recruitment of personnel.
Government investigations found an embezzlement of $16.792 million (COP) in a food program for schools between 2014 and 2015 . It was also found that there are no more resources under the same program for 2016 . The ministry of Education in Colombia has denounced several organizations involved in this embezzlement. The interim Governor had to sign a contract with the Catholic Church to supply the food for this program. This shows that the money allocated by the government to the Wayuu leaders is sometimes kept by some of them and not spent on the needs of the community.
Currently, the main source of their livelihood is the handcrafts: the mantas (typical Wayuu dress) (see Figure 11a), the chinchorros (hammocks) (see figure 11b) and the Wayuu bags (see figure 11c). The first one is a colourful handwoven bag with different features according to the design, which involves a lot of creativity and hours of work. The Wayuu mantas are colourful dresses for women, mainly suitable for the warm weather in the area. Due to the drought conditions in recent years and loss of livestock and cattle, the men of the Wayuu communities abandoned many husbandry activities and started to help women in the making of the handcrafts. However, the indigenous people get inadequate and incomparable payments from the intermediaries for the sale of their handicraft items. The intermediaries themselves make a huge profit by selling these products in other cities of Colombia or around the world. An indigenous gets only between USD$ 2 and USD$ 29 for a Wayuu bag in Riohacha (Colombia), while the intermediaries can get USD$118 paid in the market. If the Wayuu bags are adapted by famous designers, their prices can reach up to USD$600.
Figure 11. Wayuu handcrafts; a) Manta Wayuu, b) the chinchorros (hammocks) and c) Mochilas Wayuu. Photo: Diana Contreras.
SHORT TERM SOLUTIONS
Since 2014, 373 million liters of water were distributed in the affected area by the Government (Calderón, 2016). In 2015, local authorities responded to the situation by sending water tanks to some rancherias. The national authorities sent rations of food to the Wayuu community. It is estimated that in 2016, 22,000 households benefited with projects of food security, and 200,000 children received food assistance in 2015. However, in most of the cases, the food assistance does not reach all the people in need, or it does not have proper quality. It is therefore necessary to supervise this aspect by the ICBF.
The ICBF has a program oriented towards children called: from 0 to always, but it does not reach all the Wayuu children in the rancherias. Children above the age of 5 years are excluded from this program. The ICBF should have built some centres for the development of the childhood in the region, but eventually, these institutes only provided some chairs and food rations for breakfast and lunch for the children. The food rations are supposed to be sufficient for one month, but they are never enough, and even sometimes the Wayuu women have to use their own resources to be able to provide food for the kids for the complete month. The Wayuu women in charge of the centres for the development of the childhood in La Guajira work in poor conditions. They only receive an income that varies from USD$14 to $8 for their work for three months. They still have to travel to the town to pick up the food supplies and to receive their salary . During the vacations of the school, these kinds of centres do not work, and during this time the children do not receive the food rations. Some of them have stated that have been threatened for denouncing the operators hired by the ICBF.
In February 2016, the national army brought humanitarian aid and the workers associated to the General Confederation of Work (CGT) donated the salary corresponding to one day to the department. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Alpina foundation are carrying out food security and nutrition programs that benefit 4,000 members of the Wayuu community located in the medium and high Guajira. The project is funded by resources from the Government of the Department and Alpina foundation, and it is an investment of up to US$ 350.000. The project covers the communities in Siapana, Aremasain and Nazareth. This project also includes farming practices, consumption of healthy food and management processes. The expected result is the improvement in the quality of life of the community and the reduction of the casualties due to undernourishment. In December 2016, another campaign was launched by a TV Channel in Colombia to send food to the department. In 2018 another campaign was undertaken to send school suplies to Wayuu children. However, it is clear that the problems of the department cannot be solved with humanitarian aid. The humanitarian aid without development alternatives is a short term solution.
Some coping strategies are credit services, savings, the sale of labour, assets and livestock and related products. Young men migrate to urban centres to provide labour for their subsistence and remit the rest to their families. Besides the coping strategies, there are various sources of financial and other types of support coming from the government, NGOs, relatives and so on.
LONG TERM SOLUTIONS
The Wayuu community must be compensated due to the environmental impact caused by the exploitation of the coal mine and construction of El Cercado dam. This compensation should be oriented to guaranty the provision of water (desalination plants and/ or fog water collectors could be also options), improve the infrastructure (roads, health facilities and schools) around the rancherias, and employ the members of the community. It is necessary that the companies, which work in the extraction industry generate more employment among the local population. It is necessary to open harbours in the region and develop early warning system in case of another drought. ![endif]--
The high solar radiation and the mean monthly sunshine hours in La Guajira Peninsula during the whole year generate the biggest potential in Colombia for the utilization of the solar energy . It shows the opportunity to develop a solar plant similar to the solar plant built in Morocco. The generation of electricity based on solar energy can be another alternative source of income for the Wayuu community and the department.
In the social dimension, it is necessary to improve the school conditions. The centers for the development of the children in the region should be built and be well equipped. The Wayuu women working at these centers should have a contract with a fair salary comparable to their responsibilities. The food rations must arrive at this centres and it must be sufficient for the number of children their nutrient requirements of their age.
In the socio-economic dimension, the Ministry of Bussines, Industry and Tourism should promote the ecotourism in the region and existing activities such as birdwatching (see Figure 12 a, b, c) and windsurfing (see Figure 13).
Figure 12 a) Ecoturism: Birdwatching in Camarones, La Guajira, Colombia. Photo: Diana Contreras. Figures 11 b) & c) Flamingos on the Serrania de la Macuira, . Photo:: Maria Piedad Camargo.
Figure 13. Windsurfing in El Cabo de la Vela, La Guajira, Colombia, Photo: Diana Contreras.
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It is necessary that the Government supports the organization among the Wayuu community of an association to regulate the market and the prices of the Wayuu handicraft. Micro-insurance could be another coping strategy.
In the institutional dimension, the Government must castigate the corruption and adopt a zero-tolerance policy towards any form of corruption . The National Council of Economic and Social Politics (CONPES) document announced by the Government must consider all the problems holistically. Cooperation reduces drought damage costs and there is a need for new water allocation mechanisms based on the involvement of stakeholders. It is necessary to work on desalination methods and community based water management. It is important that the National Organization of Indigenous Communities (ONIC) in Colombia promotes a better organization among the Wayuu community to select representatives to have more participation in the decisions regarding water management and allocation of resources that affect this ethnic group. It is important that the traditional doctors know how to treat diarrhea and empower women with training and provide them with financial resources such as microcredits or soft loans . It is urgent the ICBF take measures to avoid child labor and mendacity among members of the Wayuu community. In the cultural dimension, emphasis should be given on preserving this community, it is necessary to discourage the migration by improving the infrastructure around the rancherias.
Note: This blog contains my own opinions and does not reflect the opinions of any organizations with which I am affiliated.
Acknowledgement: thanks to Maria Camila Hoyos and Maria Piedad Camargo for their pictures and to Srirama Bhamidipati for the English proofreading of the text.